Changing Rakhaine Adivasi Culture
of 
Md. Ashadul Islam
This Research Monograph is submitted to the Faculty
of Social Sciences, Jagannath University , Dhaka-
1100 for the Partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Social Sciences in
Sociology.
August 2013
Abbreviations
ASA-Association for
Social Advancement
BRAC- Bangladesh
Rural Advancement Committee
CHT – Chittagong Hill Tracts
CCDF- Canadian
Career Development Foundation
DU- Dhaka
University
FGD- Focus
Group Discussion
GS- Grammen Shikthi
ILO- International
Labour Organization
JICA - Japan International
Corporation
K.M. – Kilo Meter
MSS- Master in
Social Science
NGO- Non-Government
Organization
NRC -
Northern Rakhaine
State
PKSF- Polli Karmo
Songsthan Foundation
PP - Projukti Phit
PUSF- Polli Unnoyon Sonstha
UP-Union Parishod
UNHCR - United Nations High Commission for
Refugee
Acknowledgement
I am extremely grateful to
Almighty Allah for His blessing and kindness. I am thankful to my research
monograph supervisor, Md. Rafiqul Islam, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Jagannath University Ume ,
Rova and Mithang are
mentionable.
Finally I would
like to thank my mother who was supportive throughout the work.
Declaration
I
do hereby solemnly declare that this research monograph has been carried out by
me and has not been previously submitted to any other University/
College/Organization for an academic qualification or a professional degree. I
also assure that the research monograph has been presented here does not violate
any existing copyright.
I
further undertake to indemnify the university again any loss or damage arising
from breach of the forgoing obligation.
Abstract
There are many ethnic communities in Bangladesh Bangladesh
To identify the marriage related rituals and
their changes, to findout the birth related rituals and their changes, to
identify the death related rituals and their changes, to findout the causes of
Rakhaine cultural changes and ways to preserve their indigenous culture.
Finally to know every rule of observing
funerals which are involved in the death of Rakhaine. Here it has been tried to
know how the social regulations are observed with religious culture. Besides
present cultural change, the reasons of change with past culture have been
shown. It is seems to us that by discussing the changeable reasons their
cultural picture and the style of cultural change can be known. Since, highly
research has not been done about the cultural change of Rakhaine community. So,
I have tried my best to draw that style through this work.
Contents
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Serial No.
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Contents
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Page number
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Abbreviations
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2
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Acknowledgement
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3
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Declaration
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4
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Abstract
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5
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Chapter-1
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1.0
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Introduction
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8
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1.1
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Objectives of the study
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10
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1.2
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Geographical
Location and area of the study
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10
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1.3
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Hypothesis
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11
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1.4
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Limitations of the study
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12
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1.5
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Methodologies of the Study
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12
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1.5.1
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Sample size and Sampling procedure
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15
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1.5.2
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Strategies for Data Analysis
and Presentation
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15
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Chapter-2
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2.0
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Literature Review and Theoretical
frameworks of the study
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16
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Chapter-3
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3.0
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Historical Background of
Rakhaine
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28
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3.1
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Pre-British History (Before 1757)
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28
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3.2
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Brithish Period (1757 – 1947)
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31
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3.3
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35
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3.4
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Contemporary
Period (1971-2013)
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36
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3.5
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Oral History
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39
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Chapter 4
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Rakhaine marriage rituals and its changes
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41
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Chapter 5
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Rakhaine
Birth rituals and its changes
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49
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Chapter 6
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Rakhaine
Death rituals and its changes
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51
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Chapter 7
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Factors Important for Rakhaine Cultural Changes
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54
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Chapter-8
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Findings & Conclusions
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59
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References
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62
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Appendix
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Questionnaire
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66
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List of Respondents
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66
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Research Related pictures and
Maps
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69
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Rakhaine is a small ethnic
community of Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Burma
The south-east corner of Bangladesh Chittagong Bay of Bangal
According to the cense year of
1981, the area is 2,260 square K.M. and population 10, 26172. There have 7 Thana
- Ramu
- Chakhoria
- Moheshkhali
- Taknaf
- Ukhiya
- Kutubdiya
- Cox’s Bazar Sadar
Since by subject is related to
Moheshkhali Thana so, that I just trying to dive some description of that Thana
The number of Rakahine is high
among the ethnic groups in Bangladesh
·
Food
Meals consist of primarily rice with
vegetables, meat when available, such as fish, chicken or pork. Chillies are
used for seasoning. Meals are eaten late morning and before dark.
·
Work
The Rakhaine culture as well as calendar
revolves around the planting and harvesting of rice. Fresh as well as saltwater
fishing are major industries. However the working class is severly underpaid
due to high unemployment.
·
Family
The whole extended family lives together under
one roof. The men and oldest members have the most respect, however women play
an active role in family decision making. Women cook and serve food to the men,
who eat first. T is very important to Rakhaine people that their family and
community approve of their choices and actions.
·
Rakhaine Language
Structurally it is very similar to Burmese,
with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences. Rakhaine shares the
same alphabet with Burmese; however using this alphabet to communicate
specifically in Rakhaine is very very uncommon. Effectively, this causes
Rakhaine people to speak in their mother tongue, while they read and write in
the language of the Burmese, their opressors. There is within Rakhaine quite a
large disparity in regard to forces, pockets of language exist where the
peonunciation and vocabulary within Rakhaine differs from itself almost as much
as Rakhaine differs from Burmese.
The Rakhine culture as well as
calendar revolves around the planting and harvesting of rice. Fresh as well as
saltwater fishing are major industries. However the working class is severely
underpaid due to high unemployment. The whole extended family lives together
under one roof. The men and oldest members have the most respect, however women
play an active role in family decision `making. Women cook and serve food to
the men, who eat first. It is very important to Rakhine people that their
family and community approve of their choices and actions.
Arranged marriages are common;
however 'love' marriages do also happen. Traditionally, when a couple marries,
they move in with the wife's family. This is supposed to keep the culture from
deteriorating by discouraging cross-cultural marriages. Rakhine people who
marry those from the surrounding people groups are openly despised if not
shunned from the community.
Monogamy is normal practice for
Rakhine culture. Rakhine boys undergo a ceremony, enter the monastery and stay
for a few months. Later, around 20 years of age many Rakhine men stay at the
Monastery for a longer period (usually not more than a year.) Elderly men also
spend time at the monastery. The monks who stay at a Monastery permanently are
almost guaranteed a high position in the community. Monks are treated with the
utmost respect in Rakhine culture.
Strutural image of Moheshkali
administration
1.1. Objectives of the study
Objectives are the most important part of any
study. The fundamental objective of the study is to findout the cultural
changes of the Rakhaine Adivashi community of Bangladesh
- To identify the marriage related rituals and their changes
- To findout the birth related rituals and their changes
- To identify the death related rituals and their changes
- To findout the causes of Rakhaine cultural changes and ways to preserve their indigenous culture
1.2. Geographical Location and Area of the study
The area
selection is a great task in the research. By justifying the real picture, a
passage of research has been shown. I have given much importance in the Rakhaine
Palli in Moheskhali at Cox’s Bazar. A long traditional history is in
there.
Maheskhali
An island off the coast of Cox 's
Bazar. It has an area of 268 square kilometers. Through the centre of the
island and along the eastern coast line rises a range of low hills, 300 feet
high; but the coast to the west and north is a low-lying treat, fringed by
mangrove jungle. In the hills on the coast is built the shrine of Adinath,
dedicated to Siva. By its side on the same hill is Buddhist Pagoda ([1]).
Tourists are available have. It is 12 K.M. far from Cox’s Bazar with the
help of “Speed Boat”. ([2]) We can arrive there within 15-20 minutes. Eight
union of Moheshkhali upazila is given below
a. Dholghata
b. Kalamarchara
c. Hoyanok
d. Boro (Big) Moheshkhali
e. Shaplapur
f. Choto Moheshkhali
g. Kutubjom
Since’ my investigation is related with the Rakhaine
Birth, Death, Marriage and reasonable change with before so what I like to
dicuss only the culture of Rakhaine locality.
Rakhaine
population is about 17 thousand according to the census year 1991; about 80%
are lived in Cox’s Bazar area. In Moheshkhali there have Boro (Big) Rakhaine
locality, Thakurtala, Dokkhin (South) Rakhaine locality, Shaplapur and
Modirsora. There have about 350 families in 5 villages. From that-
Ø
Boro
(Big) Rakhaine locality
Ø
Dokkhin (South) Rakhaine locality
Ø
Thakurtala
Rakhaine locality
Ø
Modirsora
Rakhaine locality
Ø
Shaplapur Rakhaine locality
1.3. Hypothesis
As hypothesis is considered as a
path finder in a research, I will conduct my research on the following two
subjects.
Weather the Rakhaine
community is changing in birth, death and marriage related rituls or not?
1.4.
Limitations of the study
Though I know that every research has must some problems are created. I
am also facing some problem during the course of my study but I am overcome
those pro blem and capable to prepared my research monograph. I must admit that
my research has also limitations in some form or other. It may start with data
analysis, selection of the sample, data collection and data presentation. It is
best to recognize these limitations rather than to pretend that these
limitations do not exist. I am frank and fair to mention any unprecedented or
situational factors that I might encounter during the execution of my study. In
my research there are some limitations. The main limitation of my research I
did not find any books or articles or research in my topic. As this research is
newly done by me that’s why there will have some limitations and this is the
natural. Besides for the cause of sufficient time and sufficient money I did
not do my monograph properly.
During field survey we encountered some constrains
which resulted in some shortcomings in the output of the survey. This
constrains and shortcomings are:
- 25 respondents were surveyed only within a short period. Moreover, most of the Rakhaine Communities live in remote places and for this reason; lot of time was spent to reach the Communities. As a result, maximum time could not be allocated for community level discussion in Order to obtain in-depth information.
- Some Rakhaine people appeared to be afraid of and reluctant to interact with the investigators freely, which is very much necessary for achieving the best outcomes from the community level discussion.
- In community level discussion, all of the members were not active in participation.
- Due to unfriendly weather (rain and strong wind), investigation could not be done in several remote areas which may have effect on the quality of the survey.
1.5. Methodologies of the Study
Methodology
is an important part of any research here doing research with the ethnic
communites is always unique. In the study we have used primary and secondary
sources of information. Secondary information has been collected from books,
articles, thesis, newspapers and website. Primary source of information has
been collected in qualitative method. In this study we have used several
methods and technics for collecting field information such as face-to face
interview, case study, focus group disscision and field observation.
Methodology is a logical as well
as systematic part of the study to guide scientific investigation. A method
involves a process or technique in which various stages or steps of collecting
data or information are explained.
Dictionary of Social Science defined, methodology as “the systematic
and logical study of the principals guiding scientific investigation” (Hamid,
1997). For good accomplishment of the research work a well arranged methodology
is extremely needed. In the study the researcher has been followed quantitative method to
collect data and the quantitative method mainly used the content analysis.
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
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Face-to-Face Interview
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Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
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Case Study
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Figure: Methods of the study
Face-to-face Interview
Hence Rakhaine communities
have some different cultural activities corresponding to as usual Bengali
culture. So that is why each and every question has to be collected from the
parent population. In this case, linguistic problem is available though for
direct combination; I am able to remove most of problem. For direct
combination, the main topic of investigation is highlighted more clearly.
Focus Group
Discussion (FGD)
Though focus group
discussion various opinions can be obtain easily and directly. So from the
group discussion of top dog of Rakhaine community (8 people make a team) on one
evening it is clear to by their gossiping. So it is quite effective to us.
Case Study
Yin (1994) defined a
case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon
and context are not clearly evident… [And] relies on multiple sources of
evidence”. ([3])
We can know cultural activity more by using
case study. Answer is collected by pre-identified question. Responsers are giving
their answer spontaneously. In this case responsers are sometimes helpful in
the side of making a vital question.
Flow Diagram
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Identification of
the Problem
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Topic Selection
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Topic Selection
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Sampling technique
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Sample size
fixation
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Sampling method
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Primary data
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Secondary Data
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Reconnaissance
Survey; FGD; Case Study; Interview;Questioner
survey;
Photograph
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Books and Journals;
Policy Papers;
Project paper; Published and
Unpublished documents
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Literature Review
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Formation of
objective
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Study Area
Selection
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Reconnaissance
visit
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Sample Design
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Questionnaire
develop
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Data Collection
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Data Processing and
Interpretation
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Findings and
Analysis
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Data Presentation and
Draft
Submission
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Final Report
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 |
Figure: Activity views flow diagram.
1.5.1
Sample size and Sampling procedure
In a sample selection procedure
some sample are selected from the whole population of same characteristics
corresponding to time, money and worker. It is quite impossible to meet with
vast population that is why I just take a sample selection procedure and this
research proposal is done only with 25 respondents. Here 20 people is
selected from Moheskhali Rakhaine Palli in Cox’s Bazar, other 5 is done from Dhaka who are quite educated person.
These have five moholla in Moheskhali upzilla.
So, I have to select the number of Responser pre-determinately for the purpose
of data collection. For these purpose some different Rakhaine area which is
connected with the responser are given below:
Ø
Boro
(Big) Rakhain Locality
: 7 people.
Ø
Dokkhin
(South) Rakhaine locality : 4
people.
Ø
Thakurtala
Rakhaine locality : 3
people.
Ø
Modirsora
Rakhaine locality : 3 people.
Ø
Shaplapur Rakhaine locality : 3 people.
I just select a predetermine
sample selection procedure for some objective is like to collect efficient and
release assumption. Although, it is a content analysis, because of that we have selected
some books, articles and newspaper for data collection. The data have been
collected purposively.
1.5.2 Strategies for Data
Analysis and Presentation
All data and information will be
collected through field survey and analyze by using computer software,
Microsoft XL software, all the text using Microsoft word and pictures of
existing condition using Adobe Photo shop and Adobe PageMaker. The finding of
the study will be presented in tabular form. And for easy understanding of the readers
some different statistical methods as chart, graph, and diagram will be used
for data analysis portion of this research work.
Software used for data processing,
assembling and presentation:
|
Process/Operation
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Tools and software
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Creation of table, chart, graphs according to data
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MS Excel, MS Visio
Flow Charting
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Map Preparation
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ArcGIS 9.2, Adobe Illustrator,
Automap 2008
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Presentation of report or data
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MS PowerPoint
Adobe Photoshop
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Chapter-2
Literature Review and Theoretical
framework of the study
The subject of literature review has
a great value. So, that literature review is considered as a heart eye for any
re-examined research and to examine the subject of that research.
As my research’s topic is about the birth,
death, marriage and the cultural change of a definite tribal, so literature
term is a compulsory way. Without the review of literature term, gathering
enough knowledge about that tribal is so difficult.
So, going to do different literature review, it
has come to my knowledge that the sociologist or anthropologists are very much
careless about the subject. The Sociologist or Anthropologist did not publish
any valuable books, articles or research materials about the review. I had to
collect the topics form different Organization, NGO’s, the familiar person of
that tribal etc. So, I have tried hard and soul to collect about my research
topic of Rakhaine tribal from their books and articles. The Rakhaine articles
of Rakhaine tribal are given below:
- Arakanese Research; Journal Vol.iii, Published by: Arakanese Research society of Bangladesh (ARSB).
- Arakanese Research; Journal Vol.ii, Published by: Arakanese Research society of Bangladesh (ARSB).
- The Rakhaing Review; Vol-ii; 30 Nov-95; Published by: Rakhaing Buddhist Welfare Association.
Now briefly described bellows:
Nga Ro Rakhaing ([4]) This
book is discussed by 30 chapters which contains the life style, culture and the
rich history of Rakhaing tribal. In spite of the book discussion life style of
Rakhaing tribal as well as their works, my research subject has a very good
value. In spite of the book published in 30 chapters, it expresses the attempt
of different researchers about the Rakhaing. On the other side, the writer of
Nga Ro Rakhaing is Maung Ba Aung, besides some other writer has taken part to
make the book richer and more informative.
By the discussion of this book, the 21 chapter
is related to my research. The writer Maung Ba Aung has written the traditional
marriage of Rakhaing in this chapter. Although the marriage, death, birth are
discussed in another chapter of the book, there are less the discussion about
it. On the other hand, the cultural festivals are also discussed in this book.
So, I select the book “Nga Ro Rakhaing” so much for my research and I think it
will be helpful to give me a lot of information.
“Bangladeshi Rakhine Shampradaya Etihash,
Oitijya O Jibondhara” ([5]) History can not be written wrongly, however the tradition, culture,
birth, death, festival, marriage etc do not have any chance to give wrong
information. So, the book named “Bangladeshi Rakhine Shampradaya Etihash,
Oitijya O Jibondhara” by Maung Ba Aung (Maung Ba) has helped me to give right
information. The book has three chapters and at the end of any chapter, the
life style of Rakhine has been focused. Here is a discussion on the first
chapter on what the writer has written about Rakhine tribal.
The history of Rakhine, their tradition has
been discussed at the starting in the chapter. The next chapter has discussed
about the language, literature, alphabet, publication of Rakhine, besides it
has been placed to the occupation, education, house, public culture, games,
dance, proverb etc. Specially, in the 17th Volume, the writer has
discussed about the marriage of the Rakhine tribal. This information has helped
me a lot in my research. In the last part, the cultural festival and religious
festival has also been discussed. And it help me to get in formation a lot the
volume of the 1st chapter named “ The funerals of Rakhine Buddha”
has been classified into two sections. And it is
Ø
General
house.
Ø
Religious
monk.
We can be benefited by the two sections to know
the death knowledge about Rakhine or to get information.
In the 2nd chapter of the book “Bangladeshi
Rakhaine Shampradya Etihash, Oitijya O Jibondhara”; written by “Maung Ba Aung”
has been discussed about the historical story of Captain Hiram Cox`s and
Chinpian. And this is helpful to get the historical idea of Rakhine.
In the 3rd chapter, the writer “Maung
Ba Aung” has discussed about the institution, socio-economic development,
religious establishment and the direct participation in the liberation war in
1971 of Rakhine like the first chapter. In the 3rd chapter, the
culture and cultural works has been adorned. Though the 3rd chapter
of the book is being discussed the culture and their lifestyle, it helps me a
lot to get information in my research.
In the first chapter
of the book “Bangladesher Rakhine” has been placed the introduction; here is
mainly discussed about the life style and rights of the Rakhine.
Theoritical position
of Rakhine Tribal: The discussion named “The roll of politician in changing
the society”. Mustafa Majid has speeded his research about the tribal rights or
their economic condition by the quotes of ILO convention or International Times
paper. Besides, it has also been speeded the family, private owner of the
sociologist name Fredrich Angles. In his 2nd Chapter, he has tired
to explain the tribal lifestyle by the characteristics of the model and the
experiment named “Theory of social changes” written by professor Fred.W.Rigse.
In the last discussion of 2nd chapter, he has given a lot of
information about the research aim, research method and the Bangladeshi land.
The second chapter of the book has helped to part the research knowledge.
Rakhaine Tribal: The discussion named “Itibritto” has been
placed in Mustafa Majid research and it has become a great base of by research.
The characteristics of Arakan, their lifestyle of post-historical and
pre-historical, especially the coming of Rakhaine in Bangladesh
Mustafa Majid has discussed not only
the origin of Rakhaine but also the cultural identity in this chapter. Mustafa
Majid has given some volume much important.
Here is the list:
Ø
Physical
Identity.
Ø
Cultural
Index of Patuakhali Rakhaine.
Ø
Geometrical
culture.
Ø
Statistics
of Rakhaine or Arakani in Bangladesh
Ø
Population
statistics of Patuakhali’s Rakhaine.
Ø
Statistics
of Patuakhali’s Rakhaine in 1947-1948.
Ø
Statistics
of Rakhaine in the-then East Pakistan in
1947-48.
Ø
Statistics
of Rakhaine in Patuakhali and Barguna recently.
Ø
Economical
culture.
The social researcher has put a
great importance in the traditional, cultural and economical subject in the 4th
chapter. I have two discussions in my research subject in the two volumes.
Mustafa Majid has amplified the funerals (90-91) and marriage (102) system. The
two volumes have helped me to discuss my research subject.
Mustafa Majid has put importance the
land problem and its solution discussion in the 5th chapter. As his
research place was in Patuakhali, so the land problem and its solution are
necessary to collect. And this chapter has made his research innovative.
As Mustafa Majid has established his
research full of information, so the title of the 6th chapter has
put enough importance. He has given the title of sixth chapter “socio-economic
and political experiment of Rakhaine tribal and its discussion”. It is very
helpful for my research to get a lot of information about the socio-economic
condition.
Mustafa Majid has ended his research
paper by the title “Songkrominika”. He has tried to express the traditional
crisis of Rakhaine in this chapter. As it was the result of his PhD, so its
importance is to the discussion of index, to survey the given information to
highlight the lifestyle of Rakhaine and it has gained much popular to me to know
much.
- The articles those help me to my research idea are given in the list and their explanation:
Ø
The Rakhaine Review, Vol-11, 30 Nov, 1995 ([7])
At the first of the article, the historical
racial coming has been discussed. As the Rakhaine are the Buddhist and other
tribal’s are considered as impolite, violate by man, Maung Than Aye has
introduced a book named “A Buddhist vision on non violence. Because he wanted
to express the nation as a polite, non-violate, besides he tried to adorn the
writing to change the attitude and he collected a lot of information.
- “U Tun Sein” has written a book named “Rakhaine Calendar Year”. He has amplified the Rakhaine Calendar here. “Rakhaine Calendar Year” is very helpful to know about the Calendar year name. Because the 12 month has been explained shortly and easily here.
- “Report the General Secretary” an article written by “Maung Than Hla” has expressed the present works and future works of their organization. They have tried to give as the idea of the programmes what they organize in different times. At the end of the article, there is a volume named “Names of the members of Branches Executive Committee” and “The Buddhist Welfare Association” has been introduced.
- “U Cha Than” the Rakhaine social researcher has included a volume named “Religious institution and attribution towards Buddha Religion”. He has put a great emphasis in the vision of attribution to the Buddha Religion, Classification of monks etc. as well as religious institution.
- “Maung Hola Pru Pintu” a Rakhaine thinker has included a volume named “Rakhaine tribal and behavior of another people”. Here, he has presented the tribal debate as well as historical thinking about the different tribal.
- Tahan
has discussed the Rakhaine tribal, who live in greates Brisal. He has
mainly discussed the condition of Rakhaine in the British and
- The article name “The Rakhaine Community in Moheshkhali” has helped me to take a lot of knowledge about the lifestyle of the Rakhaine. Because the cultural and traditional idea has been explained here.
- Cha Thee Aung a Rakhaine social researcher has put a lot of emphasis on the discussion named “The cultural idea and thinking of Rakhaine”.
He has tried to familiar with the
literature and language, customs, festival, dance, song, musical instrumental
tradition at the starting, besides some steps has been taken to preserve it by
the government. He has presented that the establishment of a cultural centre to
preserve the Rakhaine culture.
Ø
There are several articles contained in the edited
books as well as in various research journals, which deal with indigenous
communities. The works of Montu (1980), Zaman (1982), Bertocci (1984), Begum
(1993), Chowdhuri (1993), Rab (1995), and Kabir (1998) can be referred in this
regard. However, most of these articles only deal with political problem in CHT
while they hardly provide any information on the resource use and profession of
indigenous ([8])
communities. The book edited by “Qureshi” (1984) includes several
articles on indigenous communities. However, these articles dealt with the
language, religion and culture of the various communities, but fail to provide
any information on the economic aspects. Nevertheless, “Huq's” article
(2001) is important in the sense that it provides detailed anthropological
discussion on the “Chukma” community.
Ø Arakanese
Research Journal; Vol-ii, 30 April, 2003 ([9])
Arakan 1830 “Social
Distress and Political Instability in the Early British Period”
Is an article written by a foreigner
Rakhaine researcher “Dr. Jaeques P. Leider”. This article widely discussed
about Rakhaine king and their reign period. It is very helpful for my research
to get a lot of information about the socio-economic condition.
Theoretical
framework of the study
This research argues that variations in the interplay
between cultural assimilation and cultural diffusion have played a significant
role in giving rise to differential patterns of economic development across the
globe. Societies that were geographically less vulnerable to cultural
diffusion, benefited from enhanced assimilation, lower cultural diversity and,
thus, more intense accumulation of society-specific human capital, enabling
them to flourish in the technological paradigm that characterized the
agricultural stage of development. The lack of cultural diffusion and its
manifestation in cultural rigidity, however, diminished the ability of these
societies to adapt to a new technological paradigm, which delayed their
industrialization and, thereby, their take-off to a state of sustained economic
growth. The theory contributes to the understanding of the advent of divergence
and overtaking in the process of long-run development, attributing the
dominance of some societies within a given technological regime to a superior
operation of cultural assimilation, while the success of others in the switch
between technological regimes to a higher frequency of cultural diffusion and
the beneficial effect of diversity on the adaptability of society to a changing
technological environment. Thus, in contrast to the cultural and institutional
hypotheses, which posit a hierarchy of cultural and institutional attributes in
terms of their conduciveness to innovation and their ability in fostering
industrialization, the proposed theory suggests that the desirable degree of
the relative prevalence of cultural assimilation versus cultural diffusion
varies according to the stage of development. Enhanced cultural assimilation is
optimal within a given stage of development, but is detrimental for the
transition between technological regimes. Therefore, while cultural traits
themselves do not necessarily have a differential effect on the process of
development, it is the variation in the relative strengths of the forces of
cultural assimilation and cultural diffusion, which together determine the
heterogeneity of these traits, that is instrumental for comparative economic
development.([10])
“Herkovits” (1955) suggested that “culture is the man-made part of the human
environment” ([11]).
“Triandis” (1994) defines it as the “unstated assumptions, standard
operating procedures, ways of doing things that have been internalized to such
an extent that people do not argue about them” ([12]). These definitions focus
on products of culture and do not address the complexity and dynamics of
culture.
Culture is not a variable, quasi-independent variable,
or a mere sum of individual characteristics. Culture is an emergent property of
individuals interacting with, managing, and changing their environment. Culture
represents the collective utilization of natural and human resources to achieve desired
outcomes (Kim, 2001). ([13])
Culture is defined as a rubric of patterned variables.
Differences in cultures can exist if people set different collective goals,
utilize different methods and resources to realize the goal, and attach
different meaning and values on them.
Culture is usually associated with the study of the
past (e.g., history, philosophy, art, literature, language, and crafts). The
products of culture represent the past, but not the whole of culture. The most
important aspect of culture is the people who have created these products.
Based on the understanding of the past and the present, people infer what is
possible in the future. People work individually and collectively in realizing
this possibility by using the available resources and skills. The culture that
people have built for themselves can have a different meaning for their
children. If the culture that is created by and for adults is imposed on their
children, then it can be perceived as a prison. If the culture that adults have
created is incompatible with the aspirations of their children, then their
children may modify the culture. Generational conflicts arise since adults use
the past to understand the present and use the past to shape the future (Kim et
al., 2000). ([14])
Adolescents, on the other hand, do not
share the same past as their parents. Since the younger generation is not bound
by the past, they can explore the future more freely and creatively.
The general impact of such a transformation on the
social lives of human beings can be understood by Habermas (1978) theory on the
differentiation of social systems from people’s lifeworlds. ([15])
Habermas pointed out that an
individual’s lifeworld is composed of three levels, namely, culture, society
and individual. For people sharing a certain cultural heritage, intersubjective
communication may determine the interpretation of cultural tradition, so they
share the power of re-interpreting it. For a society, communication may help
people to establish acceptable standards of behavior, identify with their
community, and strengthen the integration of society. For the individual,
growth and learning resulting from constant communication may enable
individuals to strengthen their capacity for action and help them to shape the
integrity of their personalities.
This orientation led Boas to
promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to
* Empiricism (with a resulting
scepticism of attempts to formulate "scientific laws" of culture)
* A notion of culture as fluid
and dynamic
* Ethnographic fieldwork, in
which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being
researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with
native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and
* Cultural relativism as a
methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as heuristic tool while
analyzing data.
Boas argued that in order to
understand "what is"—in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural
traits (behaviours, beliefs, and symbols)—one had to examine them in their
local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another
and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and
their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local
histories for an analysis of cultures.([16])
According to E.B Tylor,
Culture or Civilization taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom &
any other capabilities & habits acquired by man as a member of society.
([17])
Ralph Linton said
A culture is the configuration of learned behaviour & results of
behaviour whose component elements are shared & transmitted by the members
of a particular society. ([18])
Ralph Linton, in his survey of cultural behavior, he point out three major
forms of cultur
·
Real culture
·
Ideal culture
·
Culture construct
Conard “Phillip
Kottak”, basically took into three
important aspects under consideration while discussing changing culture and
they are-
·
Diffusion
·
Independent invention
·
Acculturation
William Haviland discuss about
cultural change. He mentions four types of cultural change. William Haviland
said, ‘The mechanisms of change are innovation, diffusion, cultural loss &
acculturation Innovation occurs when some within a society discovers something
new that is then accepted by other society members. Diffusion is the borrowing
of something from another group & cultural loss is the abandonment of an
existing practice or trait, with or without replacement. Acculturation is the
massive change that comes about with the sort intensive firsthand contact that
has occurred under colonialism. ([19])
According to Marxist doctrine, “Culture is termed as
superstructure.” Of particular relevance, Economic life and economy determine
the basic structure of the society. On the very ground of basic structure,
super structure or culture run its life. For that very reason, Marx in his
theoretical explanation, “on the basis on different basic structure, different
type of culture give birth”.
“Differences between material and
non-material culture,” is termed as cultural lag. In as short, when
non-material culture can’t keep pace with material culture in the field of
change, development and uses, then comes a gap called cultural lag ([20]).
Pertinently, if you try to find out changing
culture of Rahakain community, no doubt theory of cultural lag comes into
consider for intensive theoretical clarification.
Ogburn says in his definition of Cultural Lag ‘The
strain that co-exists between two correlated parts of culture that change at
unequal rates of speed’. ([21])
Categorically, theoretical explanation of W.F Ogburn’s- Cultural
lag, signifies a matter of great importance while understanding the real
cultural picture Rahkahin community. For the most part, using Ogburn’s theory
of cultural lag, one can thoroughly makes an analysis on Rahakhain cultural
trends.
These three broad cultural
processes of cultural change can trigger specific social processes such as
cultural lag and cultural integration. Cultural lag (Ogburn, 1966) occurs whenever
technology allows us to engage in new behaviours but our norms and values are
lagging behind and we are not sure what to think of such practices. Technology,
and material culture, especially in post-industrial societies, tends to change
faster than mentalities and non-material culture.
Such changes force us to re-think our values
and norms accordingly. For instance, controversies have always accompanied
changes in reproductive technologies as such changes challenge our accepted
definitions of parenthood and family. For instance, should we treat surrogacy
as just another form of commercial transaction, a woman renting her womb to an
adopting family? Depending on their respective values, certain groups would
argue that reproductive technology is part of the market and subject to laws of
supply and demand. Infertile couples are able to obtain what they want this
way. Others would argue that since they deal in the creation of human beings,
reproductive technologies should operate differently and there should be no
commercialization of life. The very fact that such controversies exist and
persist is an indicator of cultural lag. Reproductive technologies are already
in place but we are still arguing about their place in society.
Cultural integration is the
process through which changes in certain cultural elements trigger changes in
others. For instance, research has shown that when women in low-income
countries receive an education, it reduces the number of children they
ultimately have later in life. Interestingly, the reverse process happened: the
availability of reliable birth control in western societies has been a factor
in the rise in educational level of women and their presence in the labour
force. Recently, cultural integration has also been used to refer to the
increasing homogeneity of cultures around the world as more and more societies
become, indeed, integrated in the contemporary world-system.
For Immanuel Wallerstein
(2004) and world-system analysts, culture is the ideology of the capitalist
world-system, or geo-culture. Culture is not neutral but shaped by Western
powers so as to create hegemony and maintain the unequal division of labor in
the world-system. Cultural differences between countries are just devices to
maintain the competitive nature of the system. That system needs consumers and
therefore, the dominant values of the emerging global culture emphasize
individualism and consumption. Such values contribute to maintaining the
system.
Chapter-3
Historical Background of Rakhain Community
3.0. Historical
Background of Rakhain Community
The place which the Rakhaine kingdom
was established, its name was “Rakkhapura” (Pali word) or “Rakkhaspuri”
([22]). Whose
people were Nigrito tribal? The Rakkhapura has been changed by Apovrongsho
and its name was Rakhaine kingdom. And the peoples name was Rakhaine in the
historical explanation, the Bangali, Arabian, Portugies, and English
named the Rakhaine as Arakan. So, the two words Rakhaine and Arakan are the
same word.
Rakhaine tribal is considered as conservative
but they are having the individual nation. They have a rich and tradition of
history. Rakhaine was originated in 3325 B.C and there was a freedom kingdom
since 1784 A.D ([23]).
The Arakan has been won by the Barmy king named Bodapaya in 1784. We can get
idea about the coming of one part of Arakan in Bangladesh Bangladesh
3.1 Pre-British History (Before 1757)
Arakan was a medieval kingdom located at the
edge of South Asia became a province
of Burma after the Burmese invasion in
1784 and the subsequent annexation of it with Burma India and Bangladesh
It is important to note that “Shah Suja”
before taking shelter in Arakan was the Moghul Governor of Bengal
(1639-60) and was being chased by the Moghal General “Mir Jumbla”. Suja
was given the assurance of asylum by the Arakanese Mogh king. However, soon
after his arrival in Arakan, Suja was robbed and then in 1661 at the order of
the king the entire family was massacred. This tragic event triggered anger and
frustration both in Arakan among Suja’s followers that accompanied him and also
in the Moghul capital Delhi Chittagong
After the massacre of the Moghul prince and the
chain of events of repeated uprising led to internal chaos in Arakan. At the
same time, with the mighty Moghul presence in the Bay, Arakan lost its
lucrative revenue from piracy and of slave trade. The new circumstances brought
an end to the infamous Golden of Arakan that survived through causing human
suffering and misery.
In our contemporary period the event of Suja
and the massacre of his family is not the reason why understanding the dynamics
of ethnic relations in Arakan and by extension in Burma
Despite
its present improvised existence, Arakan continued to make headlines in the
international media not for any glorious present but for producing refugees.
The people that have been exterminated are no more the Moghs but are the Rohingyas
of northern Arakan. They complain that Rakhine hoodlums along with the Burmese
military are involved in a war of intimidation against them. Rohingyas have
been taking shelter in Southern Chittagong .
Burmese Military government and their Mogh collaborators claim that these
refugees are “Chittagongnian people” originally from Bangladesh Bangladesh
They have been excluded from the
nation-building process in Myanmar Bangladesh Northern Rakhine
State Burma Chittagong
Burmese Invasions of Arakan
Among the many Burman invasions, there had been three major recorded
attacks on Arakan. First was by Anawrahta in 1044 A.D. and the second invasion
was by Min Khaung Yaza’s invasion in 1406 and the third major invasion was by
Budapawa in 1784.
Anawrahta’s
Invasion of Arakan (1044)
Anawrahta
(1044-77), by killing his own brother claimed the throne of Northern
Burma for himself. He made Theravada Buddhism as the dominant
political religion of Burma Burma Burma
Anawrahta was known as a “religious fanatic”
and his attack of Northern Arakan left some
mark in this direction. At this time, the Chandra-Rohingyas (Hindu-Muslim
mixed) population of Arakan were concentrated in the north was racially
different from the Burmese population. The xenophobic king invaded Arakan as a
mission to bring change from an Indianized population into an Asian variety and
helped settle Tabeto-Burman Buddhist population. It was during his time that
Chakmas, although racially mongoloid, but speaking a Chandra- Chittagonian language
even felt threatned by the xenophobic invasion, left Arakan for Southern Chittagong .
King Min Khaung Yaza’s Invasion of Arakan
(1406)
In 1406 A. D., the second Burmese invasion was
led by the Burmese King “Min Khaung Yaza”. As a consequence, Noromi-kala,
the king of Arakan along with his large followers took asylum at Gaur, the
court of Bengal sultan “Gaisuddin Azam Shah”. This invasion also led to
a large scale influx of people who were the followers of the king to settle in Bengal .
In 1430 A. D., after 24 years of exile in
Bengal, Sultan Jalal uddin Khan sent his General “Wali Khan as the
head of 20 thousand pathan army” to restore Noromikla to his throne. Noromi
Kla now takes the name Sulauman Shah and becomes the king. He shifted
his Captial to a new palace site in Mrohaung.
In 1431 General Wali Khan removes Noromi
Kla and rules Arakan. General Wali Khan, the first independent Muslim ruler of
Arakan. He first introduced Persian as the official language of Arakan. Noromi-kla
again escapes to Bengal to seek help from the
Sultan of Bengal. 1433 Nadir Shah, the Bengal Sultan sent General Sindhi
Khan with 30,000 solders to help restore Noromi -kla as the king. After
this event, Arakan becomes a province
of Bengal Kalander River Chittagong ,
which most likely be the whole of southern Chittagong
The consequence of the retaking over of Arakan
by Noromi -kla with the help of the Muslim army had the effect of the
settlement of a great number of Rohingya Muslim population in Arakan. ([27])
3.2 Brithish Period (1757 – 1947)
In 1757 the British started
their regime in the Indian sub-continent by defeating the king “Siraj-Uddaula”
in the “Palashi war”.
Budapawa’s Invasion of Arakan (1784)
The Arakan or Rakhaine started losing their
power. A king named Budapawa conquered a free land in 1784. Again in 1784, Budapawa
has added Barma with Arakan. By the leading of Maha Ban Du La has sent a
large Army to uproot the Rakhaine. And they have created a serious condition by
killing, looting and oppressing the Arakan people.
The 1784 Burmese invasion of Arakan was
considered by historians as genocide for its ruthlessness massacre of Arakanese
population of both Rohingya and Rakhine groups. In the month of December, 1784
Burmese king Budapawa attacked Arakan with 30,000 soldiers and returned with
20,000 people as prisoners, destroyed temples, shrines, mosques, seminaries,
and libraries including the Royal library. Muslims serving the Royal palace as
ministers were also massacred.
The Burmese king in order to put down the
Arakanese Buddhist spirit also took away Mohamuni, the famous Buddhist
statue, a symbol of Arakanese pride of independence. The Mohamuni was cast in
bronze and colored in gold. It was sent across the mountains of Taungpass.
There were hundreds of Moghs and Muslims forced to carry the statue to Burma through the inaccessible mountainous pass
which led to the death of hundreds as they were on their way to Burma
Ga Thandi, the king of Arakan took shelter with his
followers in the deep jungles of Chittagong Burma
During the time of the Burmese invasion of
Arakan, Chittagong Chittagong
During the invasion of Arakan, the Burmese king
took with him 3,700 Muslims and settled them in Mandalay Burma Chittagong territory of Chittagong
It was during this time that Rakhines of
Bangladesh in the Cox’s Bazar area, Rohingyas in great numbers and some smaller
Arakani tribes also took shelter in Chittagong Chittagong
After the Burmese conquest of Arakan, the
Burmese king demanded the fugitives be returned. In 1824 a decisive war between
the Burmese and the British took place resulting in the British occupation of
Arakan. By now due to the merciless massacre, Arakan almost became depopulated.
“When the British occupied Arakan, the country was a scarcely populated area.
Formerely high- yield peddy fields of the fertile Kalandan and Lemro river
valleys germinated nothing but wild plants for many years ([33]). Mogh
Memories of the past and the rise of anti-Rohingya racist jolts and shaking in
Arakan.
It was in the Kalandan and Lemro river valleys
where Rohingya Muslims were farmers and peasants. There were fewer people to
cultivate the land. Rakines males normally love to enjoy entertainment than do the
hard work. Rohingyas were the hardworking peasants. The British adopted the
policy to encourage the …inhabitants from the adjacent areas to migrate into
fertile valleys in Arakan as agriculturists. … A Superndent, later an Assistant
commissioner of Bengal , was sent in 1828 for
the administration of Arakan Division, which was divided into three districts respectively:
Akyab, Kyaukpyu, and Sandoway, with an assistant commissioner in each
district.([34])
After the British conquest, despite the
memories of horror, but naturally out of nostalgia, some Rakhines and Rohingya
refugees from Chittagong Southern Chittagong due to Budapawa’s genocide
as normal. He characterizes the slight increase in the Muslim population in
Arakan after the British conquest as the settlement by “Chittagonian Bengali
Muslims.”([35])
Aye Chan’s claim of these people as being Chittagonians is due to the fact that
he didn’t take into account the fact that many of the original uprooted people
of Arakan returned to Arakan to claim their possessions. Given such a
disturbing climate in Arakan after such a destruction by the Burmese king, one
wonders, why Chittagonians living in a relatively peaceful region would migrate
to Arakan. Naturally, the Muslim migrants were the original Rohingya
inhabitants of Arakan returning to their ancestral homes. It is evident from
the fact that in the aftermath of the genocide, despite the return of order by
the British occupation, but the fear of uncertainty still persisted and the
returnees driven by nostalgia and even many other Rohingyas preferred to work
in Arakan only as “seasonal laborers.”
1930 and 1938 anti Indian riots
In the meantime, there was 1930 and 1938 anti Indian riots and Burma for Burmese campaign led by the Monks
made Muslims of Arakan felt the threat of their existence in Burma
Japanese involvement
The next large scale migration of Rohingyas to Chittagong Japan
occupied Burma and the
ultra-nationalist Buddhists jointly massacred the Karens, the Mons
(a) Myebon in
Kyaukpru District 30 villages;
(b) Minbya in
Akyab District 27 villages;
(c) Pauktaw in
Akyab District 25 villages;
(d) Myohaung in
Akyab District 58 villages;
(e) Kyauktaw in
Akyab District 78 villages;
(f) Ponnagyun in Akyab District 5
villages;
(g) Rathedaung in
Akyab District 16 villages; and
(h) Buthidaung in
Akyab District 55 villages. ([38])
In 1950, a memorandum by the public of Maungdaw
demanded the protection of fundamental rights and demanded an unconditional
repatriation of Rohingyas from Chittagong Chittagong
There was no action taken by the British to
bring the Rohingya refugees back to Arakan. But due to this event, the
Rakhine-Rohingya relations deteriorated further. Aye Chan says: “It is certain
that hundreds of Muslim inhabitants of southern Arakan fled north.([40]) At the
same time Chan from his chauvinistic believes contradicted himself by saying
that Rohingyas in Butheding, Maungdaw etc. areas in the north bordering Bangladesh are migrants from Chittagong
3.3. Pakistan
In 1947, Bangladesh
and Pakistan Pakistan and
India Bangladesh
In 1947, the tribal people differed from the
Bangladeshi plan land. The Indian government name “Scheduled Tribes”, on
the other hand the Bangladesh
In 1948 Burma Burma Burma
1958 Rohingya refugees took shelter in East Pakistan ; the number of refugees identified as being
10,000 ([41]).
1959, Burma agreed with East Pakistan governor Zakir
Hossain to take back Rohingya refugees who had taken shelter in Chittagong
in 1958. When questioned “why refugees were pouring into Pakistan from Burma ,
the Governor replied that the government of Burma
In 1960 “The Daily Guardian”, Rangoon
In 1955, the tribe police system has been
withdrawn. And in 1962, the first Pakistan
The president Ayub Khan had diminished
the special status law of Hilli Chittagong. From 1900-1964, the law of tribe
had been diminished.
Rohingya Refugees during Military rule (1962)
In 1962,
General “Ne Win” took over power and confiscated most Indian and Chinese
owned businesses in Rangoon and began his Burmanization policy which advocated
that “Burma is for Burmans,” referring that Burma is for racially “Mongoloid”
and religiously “Buddhist” people. Ne Win first began a policy of
“divide and rule” in Arakan between the Mogh and the Rohingyas. His government
identified the Rohingyas as “Indian Bengalis” from Chittagong
migrated to Burma
3.4. Contemporary position (1971-2013)
As mentioned warlier, in 1978 an officially recorded 207,172 Rohingyas
took shelter in Chittagong Chittagong
In 1982 the military rulers passed the
Citizenship Act in which it made a provision that Burmese people’s ancestors
who came to settle in Burma Bangladesh
In 1990-92 again over 2, 68,000 Rohingyas were
sent back to Bangladesh Burma
Habib Siddiqui identifies some of the major armed operations
of intimidation against the Rohingya people, orchestrated by the Burmese
government since 1948:
1. Military Operation (5th Burma
2. Burma
3.
Military Operation (2nd Emergency Chin regiment) – March 1951-52
4. Mayu
Operation – October 1952-53
5.
Mone-thone Operation – October 1954
6.
Combined Immigration and Army Operation – January 1955
7. Union
Military Police (UMP) Operation – 1955-58
8.
Captain Htin Kyaw Operation – 1959
9. Shwe
Kyi Operation – October 1966
10. Kyi
Gan Operation – October-December 1966
11.
Ngazinka Operation – 1967-69
12. Myat
Mon Operation – February 1969-71
13.
Major Aung Than Operation – 1973
14. Sabe
Operation February – 1974-78
15.
Naga-Min (King Dragon) Operation – February 1978-79 (resulting in exodus of
some
300,000 Rohingyas to Bangladesh
16. Shwe
Hintha Operation – August 1978-80
17.
Galone Operation – 1979
18. Pyi
Thaya Operation, July 1991-92 (resulting in exodus of some 268,000
Rohingyas
to Bangladesh
19.
Na-Sa-Ka Operation, since 1992. ([50])
Despite a clear evidence of Burmese invasion
and atrocities on the Rohingyas, resulting in the latter to take shelter in Chittagong Bangladesh
In understanding the refugee problem in Western Burma , the phenomenon of intolerance seems to be
the deep-rooted cause. In Burma ,
Burma Burma
It is an encouraging sign to see that, while
the ancestors of the Rakhine Moghs of Bandarbon and Cox’s Bazar, the Chakmas of
Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Rohingyas of Southern Chittagong were originally
from Arakan took shelter in Chittagong and
Chittagong Hill Tracts throughout this period, in Bangladesh Bangladesh Chittagong Bangladesh
In Arakan however, even after a million
Rohingya people left Arakan, who now live in deplorable condition in
Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Japan, Thailand, and in the Gulf states,
these ultra-nationalists continue to justify that Rohingyas are not Burmese
citizens. It appears that the problem in Arakan is deep enough to go away
sooner. This is evident from what U Khin Maung Saw, a typical Arakani xenophobe
had to say, “As a born Arakanese [I am as a Rakhine author] is obliged to write
the true story of the so-called “Rohingyas.” ([51])
It denied the Rohingya rights by saying “the
so-called Rohingya”. Today, Arakan’s true hisory refers to an exclusionist
history that Arakan belongs to the Rakhines only and wish Rohingyas should be
sent to Bangladesh
Reacting to the Burmese policy of extermination
of the Rohingyas, Saeed Khan wrote: “People have migrated for work or love or
whatever reason during the entire history of mankind… If we go by the logic
that Rohynga people have roots in Chittagong they should all be thrown out of
present day Burma/Myanmar then by that logic every person of non aboriginal
root should be thrown out of Australia, and every person with non native
American root should be thrown out of America, every one with roots in West
Bengal in Bangladesh should be thrown out and everyone with roots in East
Bengal should be thrown out of West Bengal/India. And if we keep on going like
this we will reach a point where everyone should be thrown out of everywhere as
according to science and genetics there is no so called “pure race”. According
to science every one in the present world has roots in a group of people out of
Africa . So should we all go back to Africa ? ([52])
In sending everybody to Africa, the only
problem is that ever since human races left Africa, half of Africa dried up to
become the uninhabitable Sahara desert. In the meantime, Burmese invasion of
Arakan on the Rohingya people continues and they escape persecution by land and
by sea by boat risking their lives; those who survive live in refugee camps as Burma
Rakhain first
lived at the “Arakanas” in the province of Myanmar province
of Myanmar Arcadia Arcadia
In the past history it was seen that the name of “Arakan”
was meaningful. European merchant named it. In 1784 Burma Bay of Bengal . Those days the islands were full of
jungle, unreachable and isolated.
The first settlement in Bangladesh
The first settlement in bangaldesh, in 1784 to be
free from the oppression of Barmi king 150 families with 50 boats through the
Bay of Bangal from an isolated area under the district of “Swanday” in
Arakan’s “Meghbarthi” came to Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh and reached
different island regions which was full of ferocious animals. It took them
three days and three nights. Fighting with ferocious animals, Rakhaine’s cleaned
the jungles and sowed rice other seeds taking with them.
According to the census of 1991 in Bangladesh Rakhaine
population is about 17 thousands; in which 80% live in Cox’s Bazar region. At
present in Moheshkhali about 350 Rakhaine families are living in total five
villages like
Ø
Boro
(Big) Rakhaine locality : There are 120 families.
Ø
Dokkhin
(South) Rakhaine locality : There
are 80 or 90 families.
Ø
Thakurtala
Rakhaine locality : There are 50 families.
Ø
Modirsora
Rakhaine locality : There are 45 or 50 families.
Ø
Shaplapur Rakhaine locality : There are 20 families.
Chapter
4
Rakhaine marriage
rituals and its change
After the understanding between
the matured Rakhaine boys and girls, they proposed each other by their family
members.
Mumnmg Ba Aung’ said that the
guardians of the sons search a suitable girl for their sons. ([53])
There is also the selection of “Good Day and Good Timetable”. Then, on a
unpair day, the relatives have to go to fix the date by looking upon the
Rakhaine book. But, the divorce, widow, second marriage women can not go to
this visit. This is the way; the people go to the bride’s house. After seeing
the date of the birth of bride, the both people fixed their speech.
The Rakhaine
said that they have great attempt to reserve their children’s birth date. In
the period, they wrote it in the leaf and they reserved it by withering it like
valuable papers. The monks calculate the future life of the bride and
bridegroom by seeing their by not seeing any complication. The Rakhaine think
that the bride and bridegroom can not be happy or can be unhappy in family by
the complication. The Rakhaine think that three month are bad times for the
marriage of mature bridegroom and bridge. These months are the rising of the
moon of “July” (Oyasolar), “August” (Oyakhonla), and “September”
(Tochala) before the rising of the moon of “October” (Ojoila). For
question, the Rakhaine replied that the monks and Rakhaine people are absorbed
in prayer in this day.
For that, the
marriage works are stopped in those months and the worst times are thought the
month of “January” (Prachola). There is a public opinion that the family
who do not believe this, their family can not be long or they pass bad times.
They tell very ‘good (Kongo Kaure) when they fix the date and the young boys
and girl attend the ceremony in a body. They proposed to give money for their
own occasion (Bora Kha Tango Pi). There is running a bargain. They become happy
by taking 5,000-10,000 taka. They amuse themselves by taking this. The
bridegroom present 5-6 Vori gold and there is a quarrel by saying that the
bride stay in her father house or father in law’s house. At a time all things
has come out. The both family take preparation when the marriage day is being
deleted. On the following day, all people go to the bride’s family. But before
the day, the preparation is being completed in the bride’s house among them,
the gate, pandel, sound, own cultural song, dance, wine of “Mehud Pan”
are one of them. The bridegroom wears violet color cloth and takes a sword in
his hand. Then, all the people burst out enjoyment. Then there starts a bargain
in the bride’s house. The young girl
becomes happy in a few stages. Then the step of the permission is the entrance
of the bride’s family.
But, why there
is a sword in the bridegroom’s house, in reply they said that it was started
from the ancient time. The Rakhaine said that the come home from the bride’s
house. The priest takes an hour to end the occasion of marriage. There is no
written paper in the Rakhaine’s marriage system. They complete their marriage
by the mouth speech. The Rakhaine can not marriage the brides elder sister but
they can marry the younger scoter of the bride when they are divorcee or
remarriage or the remaining of wife or not.
“Maung Ba Aung”
has said that there is no occasion in the divorce and remarriage system ([54]).
He also says that the bridegroom can not marry the brides own sister when the
bride remain alive Again, the absence of wife, the bridegroom can marry the
brides younger sister but not the older sister.The Rakhaine propose the bride’s
family first on there the oldest man or parents can be the proposed.
Maung Ba Aug has
said that the relative’s friends can communicate the primary occasion with the
bride house ([55]).
When the proper appear at the bride’s
house they have been fed with great dignity. There Bine rice besides with sea
fish, meat etc.
The boy or girl
can marry by liking each other but, the parents can agree with their children’s
marriage. Again the boys and girl marry when the parents do not give agreement
in their love. In present marriage system, there is a notice able thing that
the parents give a chance to next the bride and bridegroom each other. But,
this system has been extracted nowadays. This thing has been said in the Maung Ba
Aung’s book. For
that, he has taken the developed communication technology and information. But
the older think that there will be seen by marrying liking each other. So they
do not insult their children’s work rather than they prefer their children’s
happiness. The marriage place is in the bride’s house.
But here is a
change in it. For example, the marriage place is now in the community place. So
there is a priority in financial natters. This is quite impossible for a middle
order or rich man. As the marriage occasion is not limited in their community,
so the food’s menu is now changing. The Rakhaine invite their Muslim and Hindu
neighbor besides their own relatives. So, they take some steps in choosing the
food’s menu. Because, the Hindu does not eat the meat of cow, so there is the
meet of hen and goat.
There is a chef
for cook. The chef selects the all items. As the Rakhaine are the Buddhist they
do not kill any animal, so, they take help from other to collect the goat’s
meet. There is a priority in the food’s menu like Bini rice, sea fish, meat,
soas, various kinds of piths etc. They
take it serious for their communistically problem. But the starting of the food
item is the tea. The tea is different to us from, them. Because, they give salt
in it and for reason, as there is salt in the water of the Rakhaine they do it,
and it is very popular with them. The occasion stats bettor one or two bays.
Because, there is a festival look every where.
Maung Ba Aung
has presented it on his book. He has said in his discussion that the house of
new couple is decorated nicely. ([56])
There is a
lighting everywhere and the house are decorated by flowers, different color of
clothes, page and amusing balloon. Generally, the middle of the
house is selected the marriage place. There is a sound system in which they
play different song loudly. But, in the pant, there is no sound system like
nowadays. That time was the microphone system. But, the present youth prefer
sound box to microphone and dancing. As there is no dowry system in Rakhaine
tribe, so there is no problem to break up the marriage in any family problem.
Before the day
of marriage, the bride invites her close friends and the bridegrooms also do
that to participate in their marriage. The boy friends invite a “Bachelor
night” or “Chocolate party” to awes themselves, its main principle
is to do a happy festival.
The time of this
festival is from 12 am to 1 am. The youth drink wine and play dance with their
music in the festival. But there is a line it in drinking the wine. There is a
look anyone can not be drunkard. But inn many cases, the boys drink a lot. But
in the Rakheine marriage system, the Rakhaine youth generation play a great
role.
The rich man
plays a stage show to amuse themselves in the marriage occasion, in where the
Rakhaine boys and girls amuse themselves.
The Rakhaine girls play jokes better the marriage day. In a fined time
they go to their home. But anyone can be with the bride in the whole night.
The previous day
of marriage the bride is bathed by the leat. It is a holy thing to the Rakaine
people. So, the bride will be happy by bathing into this way.
So few days ago
before marriage, the Buddhist monk is taken in the house. In the marriage day
the monk go to the fined house in bridegroom’s house and he says the religious
rule and various things. Inn that time, the
relatives, friends and parents are present. In the same way, the Monk (Bante)
goes to the bride’s house to say the religions rule. The monk bade farewell by
praying well-wishing. Then the bride or bridegroom’s parents present gold made
ornament, money. On this time the new couple takes pray from the parents. Then
the second session of presenting is started. In this time, the relatives resent
nice things by going in the new couple’s home. On this there is priority of the
daily uses of new couple rather money. Though the past rule was to give money,
but new this thing has been changed. The new couples have to take some reules.
When people come
to give this thing the authority have to keep betel leaf, cigarette, or wishing
card. The new couple distributes this thing to the coning relations.
“Maung Ba Aung”
has showed the way of saying religions rule by the monk in his book besides he
has said the rules of giving present to the new couple in his hook. ([57])
Though the monk
say the religions rule to the new couple in the morning but the main occasion
will start on the afternoon. As the Rakhaine are the male dominated, so the
occasion is started on the bride’s house. When the bridegroom’s people go to
the bride’s house, they make a line maintaining. In this case the old get the
priority of going ahead, then the life of brother, sister and at the last, the
bridegroom come in the line. In this case, Maung Ba Aung says in his Book that
a group of wife’s carry a bowl which front paint looks like “Pagoda” or “Jadi”
and they go to the bride’s house. In this bowl there are the gold ornament
dresses, cosmetics, fresh flower bride. In the marriage system, the Rakhaine
take everything in pairs. For example, there is pair of potato, a
pair of fish, a pair of apple etc.
The people use
transport went they go too far for the bride’s house. But, they used to make
line to opera before the transport. The friends of bridegroom take a briefcase
or bag to keep the bed cloth, the pipe of smoking the pot of betel leaf, fan
etc. The Rakhaine boys go to the marriage traditionally. The boy’s dresses are
two kinds. One is the shirt with long sleeves and on this shirt there is like
something petticoat, and with that there is a long cloth. The long shirt is the
violet color. There are two cross bar on this petticoat (this bar is generally
the silver colour).
The Rakhaine
boys wear a crown on his head that is also the brown colour. The second part is
the “Barmij Lungi”. The Rakhaine bridegrooms wear the shirt in with the
Lungi. Generally, this dress has to export from Myanmar
The bride’s
dress his generally two parts. The first part is the blouses which reach to the
waist and the second part is the “Barmij Lungi”. The girls make their
hair attractive and they generally adorn their hair with flower. The brides
also wear a long cloth.
When the
bridegroom reach to the bride’s house the relatives of hime enter into the room
directs but the bridegroom enter into the room with his close friends. The
friends and the bridegroom take rest by seating a rant. On this time the
friends, younger sister make fun with the bridegroom and the bridegroom give
away “Khai”, “Perfume water” etc. The main thing of them is the “Perfume
fine rice”. They mix the rice with
the same kind of rice from the brides house and make a food named Mangolic
which cam be called “Payesh”.
The bride is
adorned with various items; especially the bride is aborted with the ornament
by the bridegroom and bride’s house giving. In the marriage, the bridegroom
gives “Ason” on the presence to the all for the bride. This process is
generally priority to the mother, sister. The bridegroom enters the bride’s
room in a fired time. But this entrance has an own style, the bridegroom has to
hit on the gerund or staircase by the sword before the entrance. The present
Rakhaine girls are very much conscious about the adornment. So they go to the
beauty parlar to take away their highest beauty.
This beauty
Parlier is generally directed by the Rakhaine girls. The bridegroom has to pay
many to the bride’s friends or younger sister before entering the bride’s
house. And for this money, they wash away the tag of the bridegroom. Because
they believe that before going to the bride’s house by not washing away hands
and legs, it is bad to them. The bridegroom has to wash his hands by the
keeping water in the front of the bride’s house.
“Maung Ba Aung”
([58])
has discussed it very nicely. He said, which his generally matched by my real
experience in the field. But the rule of entering the bride’s house by cutting
a lace is not generally found in Cox’s Bazar but in the region of Patuakhali,
Barguna. But in my real experience, I have acknowledged that the bridegroom can
enter into the bride house when he cuts the lace and after this, the sedentary people
scatter flower to the bridegroom and his friends. In the marriage seating
place, the old or friend or relatives of bridegroom sit besides him.
On the other
side, there has come some change in the bride’s favour. Now-a-days, there is
not available any lady in there. The marriage occasion start by following the
religious rule. Then, the bride and bridegroom are tied by cotton. The cotton
has five circles. They follow the rules of seating the couple, for example, the
bride has to seat left beside the bridegroom. The bride’s right hand’s short
finger has been placed to the bridegroom’s left hand short finger. Because,
they believe that they will be remain happy with love.
Maung Ba Aung
has showed it in his book. The new couple’s hands have been replaced on each
other and they have been pured by the “Rose apple” water. As the “Rose
apple” water is holy to them, they consider it as a holy in their mind and
Buddhist religion. The bridegroom gives his crown on the bride’s head and the brides
also do that and then the bride take wish from the bridegroom.
The bridegroom
presents gift for the wish of the bride. After that the bridegroom and the
bride have to eat seven times a wishing pot. On this time they throw nice water
by believing that it wills increase their happiness in life. A there is no
written deal in the marriage, the new couple declared to live in the society.
After finishing the occasion the bride has to make his bridegroom drink and the
bridegroom also do the same. Then the bride hold a mirror in front of the
bridegroom and the bridegroom also do that to see each others face. The bride
covers her face with a cloth before that. Then the eating system is started.
There is a difference in this system. For example the bride’s people have to
eat on seating a special “chair” and “piri”. The table’s height
is the one or one halt hand and the piri is one foot or the same.
There has come a
change in this system although the other people eat on seating high chair and table.
Because the rich are arrangeing the occasion in community centres now. So, they
have to eat on seating high chair and table. But in the brides house the
Rakhaine follow the above thing. The food menu is the sea-fishes, shutki, meat,
saus, white rice, Bini rice payesh etc. There is a broad list in the
bridegroom’s food menu. The frionds gets different items berides that. The
friends and relatives of him also eat that food. After eating the younger
sister, friends of bride make him wash in his hands, and legs.
The bridegroom
has to pay money inn lieu of this. The relatives coming to the brides house,
has to give a gift. But they generally pay money and give the necessary things
for using. The priest goes to the place in the morning and after that he goes
out. The friends of the bride pass their time by singing and dancing. After the
occasion the grandparents or aunt (parental) go with the bride. The head
teacher of “Barmij Primary school " named “Ume ”
says the younger sister go with her occasionally.
But, the old
shies different from the comment of the teacher. They also omit one speech with
the teacher. And that is the relatives who go with the bride she has to sleep
between the new couple. The old says that it does not happen anytime. They agree
with the teacher inn the following case. The bridegroom keeps a sword between
them. The new peek for bride is the bridegroom’s house. The new couples
generally go to bride’s house in between 3 or 10 day after their marriage. But
the interesting point is that the bridegroom can not stay at the first night in
the bride’s house. Before dusk, he has to go his own home.
But after the
next arrival, he can stay in the bride’s home. The socialist of big Rakhaine
has said that it has no comments. The son’s family can not claim anything
because there is no dowry system in the Rakhaine community. But, the girl’s
family can provide necessary things for their girl’s happiness. And the new
couples start their life in this way.
Chapter
5
Rakhaine Birth rituals and its change
Generally child in Rakhaine
community is born at the house of bride’s father-in-law. In this regard there
is no hard and first that the first child has to be born at the house of
daughters father but sometimes child probability mother can go to the house of
her father with the agree of both families. Before Rakhaine mothers went to
some women who were expert in the respect of giving child birth because of
science and technological advancement. A mother has to remain five days in a
room where he brought forth a child. Before bringing
forth some special selections are done. At this time a mother needs to eat more
nutritious foods. As a result they keep the child bearing mother far from fat
food. In this case they do not eat meat and potato. But they do not eat
fish to the point. At first they burn fish on fire, and then they eat. And as
nutritious food they eat more bindweed,
vegetable creeper, bean etc. Their idea is that bean is more nutritious. At the
time of bringing forth and after it the food menu again becomes wide.
Especially after birth they can eat all kinds of food. Many relatives come to
see the child bearing mother after bringing forth. They come taking different
types of gifts, such as biscuits, fruit, dress, soap etc.
Maung Ba Aung has showed the
Birthday Festival of child in his discussion. After coming out from the room
where a mother gives birth they have to wash everything’s of the house in the
pond. In this respect beside the females of the house other females five months
of child birth it is to puncture the ear of the child. And this work is done by
the elderly Rakhaine women. Money, rice, chilli, Onion etc have to be given to
the elderly women as gift. Again in some causes these women get gold, silver
according to their ability. In this punctured ear the wear ear-ring, the names
of these ear rings are exceptional like “No Dhong”. In the hands of the
child bangle, in the legs and waist different things are tied. In their
language these are called “La Kau”. But the main ceremony about newborn
is done from three months within a year child birth. Those who come before
child bearing are entertained them with various things. Generally the name of
child is kept from three months within a year. In order to observe this day
many ceremonies are arranged by inviting the intimate relatives. In this day
the name of child is selected. The function of selecting name is generally
completed by the priest because Rakhaine parents can not keep the name of child
though the wish. In this regard food is offered in Buddhist Bihar and before
offering food in which day the child has been born, time of born and the first
letter of parents are told to priest. The name of new child is selected from
the collection of name remained to priest, they name of Rakhaine child
generally becomes with three words. Such as Mong U Sen (Male), Mong Ba Aung
(male), Ume king Nu (female), and this point has been discussed at length by
Mong Ba Aung. He says that, the term “Way” can be kept at any place of
the name of elder son and daughter. Every name of Rakhaine baby bears a
religious meaning. And the surname is generally with two words.
Maung Ba Aung is mentioned. But,
though parents can not give main name of the baby, they can give the name their
hobby. In this regard that name is alias. After birth they go to visit the
house of grandparents three months later. In first time Rakhaine mothers take
new baby with them, they can not sleep at night. The ceremony of the birth of
Rakhaine new baby is so gorgeous. As a result many guests are invited. When the
guests come, they are entertained with various fruits, sweets etc. Besides
there are rice, meat, the fish of sea etc.
Now some changes have come in
Rakhaine community which are discussed with them. As many elder Rakhaines did
not see birth ceremony but at present they can see all the ceremonies which are
observing and they are being able to adopt themselves with them. The rich
families observe birthday every year gorgeously. In birthday they get many
gifts from the relatives. Among all gifts most of the gifts are toy of children
or important things. And through this process a Rakhaine baby turns over a new
leaf and other Rakhaine’s believe from their mind that all happiness of life
lies in it.
Chapter 6
Rakhaine Death rituals and its change
After the death of Rakahine
Buddhist’s funeral system is performed in two ways.
- To bury
- To burn
The Rakhaines tell the place “Thang
Shei” where the dead bodies are burnt and call the death person “Ma Tha
Ing”. If baby dies in Rakhaine society, in that day all arrangements are done
to burn it. If someone wants to know the old of the body, they confine it
within 0 to 5 and some confine it within 0 to 8.
But the funeral process of old
Rakhaines is not done in a day. If any Rakhaine dies, their funeral is not
arranged in birthday and Wednesday. About this “Maung Ba Aung” ([59])
has showed it fairly in his discussion named “Rakhaine Buddhader Funeral”. To
discuss the reason of not being funeral of death person on Wednesday, he says
that in the rule of Rakhaine the funeral of Rakhaine king was not arranged on
Wednesday from that ritual the Rakhaines do not still do the funeral of dead
bodies on Wednesday. To know about this idea many old Rakhaine speak the truth.
Because of having such an idea we do not do funeral of dead person on
Wednesday. Again some Rakhaines inform of the fact that if anyone dies
abnormally or by suicide, his/her dead bodies are not kept in house. Again
someone dies at night of invisible moon. Then the rule is followed.
The dead body of person is kept
in “Buddha Bihar ” because they think
that if the dead body remains in house, evil power can be created which will
bring disgrace for the members of the house. As a result they keep the dead
bodies in “Buddha Bihar”. They think that it is a holy place for which evil
power can not enter. The dead body which happens at night of invisible moon is
also kept in “Buddha Bihar”. At this they think because of unnatural death evil
power may be seen which will harm the members of the family and other people.
It is not fact where the dead body is kept but at night the beggars and priests
are invited. In the morning the invited beggars keeping the dead body before
after religious enchant to the relatives and tried to make them understand that
everybody one day must take the taste of this day. So, from now everybody
should come to the path of religion and it is the purpose of the beggar’s
teaching. In the day of funeral lunch is served the invited people. And Maung
Ba Aung has presented this fact fairly in his book named “Rakhaine Community of
Bangladesh
The subject of funeral which
Maung Ba Aung has discussed is real and fair enough because by telling with
Rakhaine community this information comes out.
He says after shifting the local
young’s have to keep “Khete” in Bihar .
At this time the “Khete” is not kept on the land and in other houses. By taking
the “Khete” of dead person on shoulder, everybody starts for burning it.
But at present some changes have brought in this regard.Like now cars run by
engine are used to carry the dead body.
Those who present in the
funerals, soap or money are to be given to them. Rakhaine person is bathed with
clean water when he dies. Generally relatives perform the work (For example
wife, if husband dies and husband if wife dies). The priest is related to this
bathing process. The priest only wishes the dead person’s soul in peace and
goes giving religion matter. The dead person is put into a “Kheth” after
finishing bathing. It is the same as the Muslim. The “Kheth” is taken on
the back from the Buddhist bihara. The two legs of the dead person are tied
with ropes after bathing him with clean water. After finishing process he is
dressed with white cloth. That time cloths are put which are used by this
person besides him. By wanting to know about
the fact, the Buddhist says that the belief those cloths will come into
fruitful when the dead person goes the next world.
The old Rakhaine say that the
gold ornament that the dead man used, they keep it with their dead bodies.
Though it is a superstition to them, they abide by this kind of rules because
it has come from their previous ancestor. Besides the grave, they keep a light.
Generally the Rakhaine do their funeral works in the next day.
The funeral system has two
processes. In this case, those who die by complex disease, they are burnt and
those who die naturally, they are buried. But sometimes the funeral holds
according to the wish of dead persons, that he stated before he died the
relatives stay besides the “Kheth”. After finishing all religious formalities,
the dead person are brought with the “Kheth”. The people who go the “Kheth”
scatter money mixed “Khai”. Everybody can see the face for the last time in the
grave yard. The youngster of Rakhaine dances while they take the dead person to
the grave yard. But in this case, the husband of a pregnant wife can’t
participate in the dance. Because their belief is that it may harm the wife.
The youngsters who dance alongside the dead body have to pay cash. There is a
person who burns the dead body. But at the time of burning, the first one
besides him leads the fire. In this case, the husband does the work if the wife
died and the wife does the work if the husband dies.
Now many Rakhaine say that this
custom is not in vague. Now they put the dead body in an electrified room and
they press a switch. The funeral ends within a while. In the graveyard of
Rakhaine there is a place for the dead person. In this case, the person who
burns the corpse receives money. On the other side, for the buried person, the
graves have to prepare before the funeral. In this case, an experience person
should dig the grave. But the relatives fix the grave area. The husband does that if the wife
dies, the wife does so if her husband dies.
After the determination of Burial place, the relative of the dead person
digs the soil for seven times.
The fixer can not enter any others home for a
week. He or She has to avoid new moon if it comes moon by this week. Son of the
deceased person for up to one week of fish, meat and can not eat and can not go
to another neighbour’s home. It is a practice of their religion, which is
unchanged from before.
The depth of grave is
generally 5 to 7 hand. The dead person is taken in the grave directly off the
“khet” and neatly kept in the grave. The dead person’s relatives (The husband
does that if the wife dies, the wife does so if her husband dies) pour soil in
the grave for seven times and then the rest do it. The grave is approximately
on hand above from the ground. They give the soil into the grave very
carefully. To identify the grave they make a shade of “Bamboo” on the
grave. However, the rich man makes a monument to identify their grave. Clay
carrier or People dahakari take a bath first than they back to their home. Its make them fresh. They give food to the “Monk or Banated” for the
peace of the soul into 7 to 10 days. If there is new moon day within seven to
ten days they give food to the “Monk” on that day. In Rakhaine language,
the container of the “Monk” is called “Chabhei”. On the other hand the
villagers are invited to take a meal and pray for the peace of the soul. In
Rakhaine language this ceremony calls “Sraddha”.
Researcher ‘Maung Ba Aung’ says
that “the death of pregnant women and “Salil” is an evil dead. First,
they complete the funeral of the “embryo”, and then they complete the
funeral of the women. It is a religion rule for them. But when it is a “Salil” dead they
first collect the dead body. There is a special rule to complete the funeral of
the dead body. They believe that when a healthy man takes a jar of water and
through it to the banks. The last point of the water is the fix place to complete
the funeral of the salil dead body.
Chapter
7
Factors
Important for Rakhaine Cultural Changes
Change is an inherent aspect of culture. No
culture remains static. There are many reasons for cultural change: economic,
political, environmental, and, of course, technological factors often operate
concurrently to trigger cultural change. We are currently experiencing vast
social and cultural changes on a global scale. There are, however, identifiable
cultural processes involved in cultural changes.
Present world is dynamic. Here everything is
not stable. The society is changing for its necessity. Globalization is the
main factor of these changes. Globalization makes world market free. As a
result society’s economic environment is being boarder less. Cultural exchange
with one country to others today is regular matter. As result cultural network
is included to network society. To discuss cultural globalization in 1960 “Macluhan”
said that now the world has changed into global village not only pre-modern but
also post-modern theorists discussed about global cultural changed. “Karl
Marx” was the most importanty theorist among german theorists. He said five
stages of social change. These are
SHAPE
\* MERGEFORMAT
|
Communist Society
|
|
Sociolist Society
|
|
Primitive Society
|
|
Slavery Society
|
|
Capitalist Society
|
Figure:
Stages of social change (Karl Marx)
Marx believes that society his dynamic process
had change, now stay in capitalist society. This capitalist society sees
conflict between owner and labour. As a result revolution must be come. Deprive
class conscious about world market exploiting their surplus labour owner class
own lot of wealth. Now these know working class people. As result between them,
class consciousness has come.
Karl Marx thinks that revolution will basically
in society by this class conscious and because of this revolution capitalist
society will turn into socialistic society. Though the entire discussion of
Karl Marx about the changing of society was based on society, he has tried to
present cultural change with passage of social change.
On the other hand, German theorist Max Weber
has tried to discuss the bureaucratic society on contrary to which there is the
point of cultural change. Among the modern theorists “Anthony Giddens”, “Beck”,
“Bauman”, “Michel Focault” and other theorists have given very
importance on the cultural change in their discussions. All theorists have
acknowledged in a voice that globalization has worked as a main factor behind
this change. They think that today the world is technology based. Globalization
has left technology in world market freely. As a result one country is being
able to exchange cultural idea with another country and consciousness is
increasing among persons. It is not occurring cultural change but social
change.
If we look Rakhaine society have
some special change. Some change are inter related in this system changing. We
discuss below this cause:
1. Globalization:
Globalization not only the
central culture but also scatter everywhere global and local culture. We know
that, globalization have two parts. Such as;
Ø Globalization
of the local (Micro globalization):
It’s spread local to world wide.
Ø
Globaliozation
of the globality (Micro localization):
Globalization is a process.
It’s scatter world wide to local away. Example Rakhaine child birthday party
occasion arrange in a community centre. These systems come from western
culture. It’s a result of globalization. Today this system is everywhere in
Rakhaine society.
Discuss about
global culture-
“Cultural
Globalization a phenomenon by which the experience of everyday life, as
influenced by the diffusion of commodities & ides, reflects a
standardization of cultural expressions around the world. ([61])
We said that,
globalization is change Rakhaine culture. Globalization is not only good; it is
also a gift from the west of the world.
2. Modernization:
Modernization is “The overall
societal process, including industrialization by which previously agrarian
historical & contemporary societies become developed.([62])
Modernization is a result of
globalization. Modernization is a tool of globalization.
3. Modern education:
Technological education system is
a moderation of modern education. Some old Rakhaine people said that, today
many student of Rakhaine study in School, College, University and different
abroad university. So, today’s study is far different from ago study. This new
study system change there culture. It’s a result of modern education.
4. NOG’s Intervention:
Today NOG’S contribute some
benevolent activities in Rakhaine community. For example that, I see big
Rakhaine locality set up a “Mukti” NGO. This NGO’s activity is better.
On the other hand other NGO is better. Such as
SHAPE \*
MERGEFORMAT
|
Moheshkhali NOG’s Activites
|
|
BRAC
|
|
ASA
|
|
PROSHIKHA
|
|
PROJUKTI PHIT
|
|
GRAMMEN SHIKTHI
|
|
CCDP
|
|
PKSF
|
|
POLLI UNNOYON SONOSTA
|
This
NGO’s contribute greatly in Rakhaine society and culture.
5. Interaction
with majority people:
Moheskhali upzila generally live
in Hindu, Muslim and some Rakhaine community. As a result of this community
people culture activities include other group culture activities. Otherwise
Rakhaine community people marriage occasion invite other community people. So,
this system include there culture and change there culture system believe that
Rakhaine community people.
6. Communication system:
It Moheskhali is an island
and it is far from 21 K.M. at Cox’s Bazar. One communication is road away other
is technological communication. This technologies communication have I.T
sector, mobile, Internet etc.
Ø
Communication
of Road system:
Moheshkhali upazila North side
and South side surrounding two cobbled road. As a result of construct Bodor Khali Bridge include the central Moheshkhali land Upazila
head coater far away 25 K.M of Bador
Khali Bridge Kacha Road
Ø
IT sector, Mobile
Set up a digital
telephone exchange and this system communication revoulation in Moheshkhali
every mobile operator include in this network in Moheshkhali. This mobile
operator being a good internet culture system provide in Moheshkhali. At a
result of Moheshkhali Rakhaine community culture have some change. Rakhaine
legislative said that, every house have a television, Radio, Frieze, Internet
communication and day by day this system increase in Moheshkhali.
7. Electrification:
Moheshkhali upazila
electricity capacity is better but today this system is fall. But vigorously we
say that, today electricity relative activities are better then ago. Central
facility is better day by day. Today every house has a television, radio,
computer some house have a micro woven, Wishing machine and ultra modern
machine include. This ultra modern tools include there culture and this system
change their culture day by day.
8. Government Development
project:
Many governments’s
development project set up in Moheshkhali. Moheshkhali not only an upazila but
have many entertainment historical places. Thousand of visitors come from
Moheshkhali every year. At a result of many governments farm and private NGO’s
contribute road construction, electricity development and historical place
management. Example “Japan International Corporation” (JICA) proposes
our Prim Minister 4 milion dollar invest in this place for a new Cole energy
centre construction. Many structural changes are noticeable in Moheshkhali for
that investment.
9. Jobs out side their
locality:
Today Rakhaine community
people not only their ancestor occupation but also they go abroad and earn
money. Especially big Rakhaine locality’s young people go abroad different
country. Discuss with Rakhaine people the said; Singpaur, Malayahsa, Abu Dhabi
10. Influence
of livelihood & Income generating activities:
Most of the people in
Moheshkhali earn money sweet battle cultivation, agricultural work, ocean fish
collect. This work not only bangali group but also Rakhaine group’s people. One
new profession come Rakhaine groups they said. This new business is Interest
Business. This business runs away only one small house or office. Today
Rakhaine women out of house and they contribute many out door work. Such as
different Birmij shop and local Rakhaine market introduce by the women of
Rakhaine.
Today we see, Moheshkhali
upazila’s Rakhaine community culture is different from ago. This different
prove that discuss with Rakhaine young man, women and legislative people.
President of Barmij
School
By discussing with Rakhaine
with community it has come two our knowledge that the culture change is not
influence or destroying there culture rather than it is necessary to there
culture.
Chapter
8
Major
Findings
Rakhaine Marriage
It is very difficult to realize
the cultural change of Rakhaine from outside. But by realizing the fact deeply
it is very easy because it has been understood through analysing. By analysing
the cultural sights of Rakhaine marriage it is obvious that the proposal of
marriage firstly comes from the family of son. The house of daughter is
generally marriage place. Some changes have come in this respect from before
because now many rich Rakhaine love the marriage ceremony more in the community
centre than the own house. Though the picture of food in marriage ceremony is
in condition of before but some new items have been connected with the food list.
Because now not only Rakhaine’s but also others are invited in marriage
ceremony. As a result it is seen by analysing that for entertainment now beef
and mutton are being listed. Again the presence of other religious people has
come out as cultural change. Because many Rakhain’s mention that in the
previous days only the people of Rakhaine community were invited. But now they
have come out from that culture and rule and they have become able to make
relation with other communities. By analysing the dresses of marriage it is
seen that they are bearing a traditional style.
But in this case the description
of the madam of “Rakhaine
Barmij School
The cultural picture of marriage
has been in same condition because they are strongly determined to observe all
religious rules and regulations related to marriage. It is understood by
analysing in this regard that as in their marriage there is no written
agreement, so they have to give themselves on the religious belief. Because in
discussion it is identified that the function of marriage is performed by the
priests who are kept in the high place of respect in religious practice. So, it
they want to come out from the before culture of marriage then the term marriage
will completely be their own matter. As a result the cultural discipline of
society will be broken. By analysing marriage it is noticed that it has been
following a cultural diagram since before.
Rakhaine Birth
By analysing the cultural figure,
before bringing forth or the later matters it is seen that cultural change has
been brought in some cases. Because many Rakhaine’s mention that the work of
bringing forth was done by a woman who was expert in this fact. But now it has
changed, they inform it. By analysing this change it is known that there
technological facility, such as treatment service, qualified doctor’s or the
service of community clinic are being developed day by day. As a result the
Rakhaine’s go to hospital now. Which kinds of nutritious food mother must eat
before giving birth, at the time of birth or after birth.The Rakhaines consult
with the doctor’s of hospital about these. By analysing the picture of cultural
functions which are observed after child birth it is seen that a traditional
form is existed in them, because these functions are not seen as “festivals”.
In this the condition of class is caught because those who are rich the
dimension of their arrangement is also more.
For this the birthday ceremony
has come and other ceremonies. Now in Rakhaine community birthday is observed.
As a result some differences are noticed in food menu. It is not told that it
is not their cultural difference rather it is good to think it as aristocratic
culture. By analysing the culture of selecting child’s name it is seen that a
religious style is still existed. Behind it religious culture is the main. It
is seen in discussion that the full process of selecting child’s name is
selected by the priests. As a result here the rate of cultural change can not
be neglected. For selecting child’s name they celebrate cultural function but
here, they prefer aristocratically culture than cultural
change analysis expose. After baby’s birth festive, they follow previous custom
for food list. Although Rakhaine’s people says that this festive are not follow
religious rule. Despite these, religious influence this festive.
Rakhaine Death
Analysis death person’s funeral,
funeral performed two ways. One is buried and another is a ash to fire. Though,
at present they are like to bury without set on fire more over. Those person
and death by virus attack his body is ash to fire another reason this. Analysis
funeral processes these are depend on family decision. Analysis death person’s
funeral expose that they follow some religious custom, they thought that it is
not possible to change and in research analysis we find that they give simply
their use cloth without other things.
Conclusions
Rakhaine people have distinct
cultural practices. But now-a-days they are chinging deu to several reasons
such as modernization, electrification, education, communication, market
economy and the influence of the majority Bengali people. Though the Rakhaines
are chinging but now-a-days they are much more awar about their traditional
cultural practices which they want to preserve. The government, NGO’s and civil
society should come forward to help them to uphold their traditional cultural
practices which can preserve their identity.
To realize Rakhaine societies
variance trying as much as about their marriage, birth and death that are
popular cultural festive in past and present, here focus on fulfil way.
Analysis whole subject see that change is coming. This percentage is slow.
Their cultural form is creating
difference between at present and ancient/previous. As result they celebrate
their marriage function or birthday party in community centre. In 21 century,
the worlds celebrate scientific advances Rakhaine are not beyond this not only
their educated boys and girls leave out from the house but also they are going
to outside the country. In analysis, these are help to create their cultural
variance. Rakhaines are working to stay their nationality and culture in our
research analysis expose.
Their own cultural characteristics
are focus on by different books, articles or newspaper. As a result they are
conscious of their own culture and knowing their culture another society.
Therefore, Rakhaine cultures think that their own but today it as a pant of
beagles main culture our research analysis expose.
At last, we can say that a change has come and
their marriage, birth and death function. These are velar in research analysis.
Realize their change we use different method more over. We are directly
discussing Rakhaine people. So, that we know their present and previous
cultural situation. Sometime, they focus their own cultural change. That makes
the task easy. Technology has helped to realize this change easy.
References
Books
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(Rakhine) State of
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P, (1958) “Tribesmen of the Chittagong Hill Tracts”
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Researches into the development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art
& Custom”; Vol. 1; John Murray,
- Furnivall; (3rd edition, 1957), “An introduction to the
political economy of
- Francis Buchanan; (1798), “A Comparative Vocabulary of Some of
the Languages Spoken in the
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(Ed.), “Handbook of Culture and Psychology” (pp.
51–76).
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- Majid,
Mustafa, (1st edition: August 2003); “
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with Respect to Culture and Original Nature”,
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Sociology’; Published by
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(1984/1994). “Case Study Research: Design and Methods”,
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·
A.B.M.
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Selina, (1993). “Tribal Administration in the
Hill Tracts Region of
·
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Situation of Rohingya Children in
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Mostafa, (2003), “Rakhaine Jatisatta: Iritibritto”, Published by
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Mustafa, (1992), “Potuakhalir Rakhaine Uppajati”, Bangla Acadamy,
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Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF), Arakan (
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Ahmed, (1978), “Glimpses into the History of the Burmese and Chinese
Muslim,
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H. (1994). “Culture and Social Behavior”.
- U Aung Tha Oo, “Rakine Rajawan (in Burmese)”, Mya
Radana Press,
- U Khin Maung Saw, “The Origins of the name Rohingya”, 06, 11, 2005; Sara Smith Faked History, Burma Digest, 28, 11, 2005.
- William Haviland; (1995), ‘Cultural Anthropology’; Published by Cengage Learning; p-445.
Newspaper
- “
- “
- “The Daily Guardian”,
- Bahar, Abid, (June 03 2008), Tagore’s Paradigm Exposed in “Dalia”.
Web link
* http://www.rohingya
.org/index. php?option=
com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=30
Unpublished M.A. thesis
- Bahar, Abid, (1981), “Dynamics of Ethnic Relations in Burmese
Society: A Case Study of Interethnic Relations between the Burmese and the
Rohingyas”, An Unpublished M.A. thesis,
Appendix
1.1. Questionnaire
Question about Marriage
Tell me what behaviour and customs
you follow to establish a marriage such as to propose, the place marriage, the
food, host, the cultural festival, the arrangement, programmes after marriage,
shelter after marriage etc.
Ø
Remark
the behavior and customs differences between the past and present condition in
those cases.
Question about Birth
Tell me what behaviour and customs
you follow to a birth such as the place of birth, the food, host, the cultural
festival, the arrangement, and programmes after birth etc.
Ø
Remark
the behavior and customs differences between the past and present condition in
those cases.
Question
about Death
Tell me in details about the
funerals of a death from beginning to the end.
Ø
Remark
the behavior and customs differences between the past and present condition in
those cases.
1.2. List of Respondents
Ø
Boro
(Big) Rakhain Locality
: 7 people.
Ø
Dokkhin
(South) Rakhaine locality : 4
people.
Ø
Thakurtala
Rakhaine locality : 3
people.
Ø
Modirsora
Rakhaine locality :
3 people.
Ø
Shaplapur Rakhaine locality : 3 people.
- Woman Respondents Name and Address
1. Ume
Teacher (Barmij govt.
Primary School
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
2. Rova
Barmij Shop
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
3. Sachong
Du Long
House
wife
Dokkhin (South) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
4. Mithang
Student, Leadership University
College
5. Nainai
Tun
Student, Leadership University
College
6. Thinn
Hlaing
- Man Respondents Name and Address
1. Mong
Mong Ri
Business
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para, Moheshkhali.
2. Shaning
Khe
Battelllip
Cultivator.
Modirsora Rakhaine Para , Moheshkhali.
3. Momp
Thay Aung
Business
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
4. Mong Ri
Fu
Business
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
5. Mung Ba
Sen
Business
Gorokghata Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para,
Moheshkhali.
5. Mong
Student, JnU, Dhaka
6. U Tun Shwe
Student, DU, Dhaka
7. U Tun
Shwe Khine
Modirsora Rakhaine Para , Moheshkhali.
8. U San Tha Aung
Job Holder, Mirpur, Dhaka
9. U Shwe Zankey
Student, Leadership University
College
10. U Soe Soe
Student, Leadership University
College
11. Thi Ha Lwin
Student, Leadership University
College
12. Minn
13. Yaung Ni Oo
Business
14. Myo Thu
Teacher
15. Saw Min Naung
Teacher
16. Zaw Min
Barmij Shop
17. Usen Rakhaing
Barmij Shop
18. Zaw Wang Rakhine
Fisherman
19. Maung Bashan
Business
1.4. Picture and Maps
Figure: Moheshkhali Upazila Map
- Marriage Ceremony Pictures
- Birthday Celebration Pictures
Figure: Birthday
gift
- Death or Furenal rituals images
Figure: Monk
(Vante) Death body
* Other
pictures
Figure: Rakhaine
Buddhist statue. Figure: Uazila
Health Complex, Moheshkhali
Figure: Boro (Big) Rakhaine
locality, Buddho Bihar. Figure: Moheshkhali Misti
Betellip
Figure:
Figure:
Rakhaine Shop (Controlling by a woman). Both are Respondents in my research.
Figure: South Rakhaine
“Buddist Bihar ” Gate. Figure:
Upazil Vumi Office
Figure: Boro (Big) Rakhaine
“Buddhist Bihar ”. Figure: Boro (Big) Rakhaine “Buddist Bihar ”
Figure:
“Rakhaine Yong United Asociation”. Figure: Gov. Barmij
Primary School.
Figure:
Moheshkhali “Zati”
Figure: Moheshkhali Zilla
Porisad Dakh Banglo.
Figure:
Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para, Buddist Bihar . Figure: “Adinath” Temple Main
Figure: “Adinath” Temple Leadership University
College
Figure: Environment
Protection of the Mangrove Project, Moheshkhali Figure: “Adinath” Zati.
Figure: “Adinath” Temple
Figure:
Respondents in my Research. Figure: Respondents in my
Research.
Figure: Respondents in my Research. Figure: Moheshkhali Polli Bhiddut Zonal Office
Figure: Boro (Big) Rakhaine Para
“Buddist Prayer Room”.
[2].
Speed
Board-Its run by Diesel Engine. One of the greatest Media is to move from
Cox’s bazaar to Mohaskhali.
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London , New
Delhi
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p. 106-108.
Aung (Maung Ba); 1st Edition
April 2003.
Muhammad Seraj Uddin, Direction (in charge).
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Division, Bangla
Academy , Dhaka , Bangladesh
committee, Rakhaine Buddhist
Welfare Association.
national
legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their historical ties
to
a particular territory, and their cultural
or historical distinctiveness from other
populations that are often politically
dominant”.
10. Kim, U. (2001). Culture, science and indigenous
psychologies: An integrated
analysis. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook
of Culture and Psychology (pp.
51–
76). Oxford :
Oxford University
philosophical, and epistemological
analysis. Asian Journal of Social Psychology,
3, 265–287.
system: A
critique of functionalist reason. Boston
papers (B/B61.5) American
Philosophical Society, Philadelphia
with Herbert Lewis 2001b.
[17]. Sir E.B Tylor; Primitive Culture: Researches into
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Philosophy, Religion, Art & Custom
(1871); Vol. 1; John Murray, Albemarle
Street.
[18]. Ralph Linton;
The cultural Background of personality; (1945); Published by
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p-445.
[20]. Ogburn, William Fielding. 1922. Social Change with
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Original Nature. New York
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Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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Academy, Dhaka ,
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Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden
[38].
Ashraf Mohammad Alam; (October
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Minority Group, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden
Enclave Revisited, 2007.
1976.
1976.
Interethnic Relations
between the Burmese and the Rohingyas, An Unpublished
M.A. thesis, University of Windsor , Canada
Muslims in Arakan, (New York , Arakanese in United States
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published in the United
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Rakhaing”; Publish by Maung Mang Nine (Maung Mang), p. 151.
(Maung
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(Maung
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(Maung
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[59].
Maung Ba Aung
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Shampradaya Etihash, Oitijya O
Jibondhara”.
[60].
“Khete” is
used for carrying dead body and it makes by bamboo or wood.
Muslim’s call khet as
“Kathia”.
[61]. Wikipedia
[62]. Jary & Jary: 1991; p-404.
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